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Several Ways To Improve Your Writing Skills
Studying process involves a lot of written assignments that are usually the deciding points of any course grade. They may be difficult and time-taking but the results you get afterwards are essential both in your academic life and in your future profession regardless the field. Looking over your essay, tutors evaluate your writing skills, your ability to analyze, to assess, to compare and contrast, to express an opinion and to sound persuasive and affirmative. As you can see, there are a lot of important factors that influence the grade the tutor gives to you for your written assignment. There are a lot of types of written assignments and as a good student you are supposed to know how to write them all.
One of the hardest essays to complete is a compare and contrast essay. From the first sight it may seem that it is very easy to compare and contrast things but this really depends on what things are you comparing and contrasting. It takes time to compare material objects like buildings or monuments; imagine how time-taking the process of comparison of philosophical currents is. It is very important to choose objects or events that can be put under the same category at least in one feature out of the others. It is impossible to compare orange juice and rocky mountain, isnt it? But these are simple material matters that can be easily defined. What to do if you are given a number of matters that seem irrelevant in all the characteristics known to you? That means that you have to do a little research and evaluation. It will be a good thing to make a chart putting the things you want to compare and contrast on the top and the characteristic features aside. This way you have a possibility to see in which way they are similar and how they are different. After the evaluation process you may start actual essay writing. At the beginning you may also do a little research on possible essay formats, styles and structures, unless the requirements are set by the tutor. This really matters, for you have to show that you are intelligent, educated, well acknowledged in the subject, literate, creative, have ability to evaluate and to analyze and what is the most important, you are a unique individual with own point of view.
What sin also very important about essay writing is proofreading and editing. You may of course be exhausted by writing process and miss some mistakes, so it is better to postpone the proofreading process to times when you feel good and can attentively and step by step go over your creation and make some necessary corrections. After you are satisfied with what you have written you may submit your project and you may be sure that the result is quite possible.
BONUS : Shakespeare Cipher Stories, Part 1
Did Shakespeare write Shakespeare? Many people doubt that, for various reasonsthe most obvious one being that a barely literate actor from the sleepy village of Stratford-on-Avon could not possibly have written with such accuracy and familiarity the many scenes in the plays that invoke the classics or the pomp of nobility and royal courts. Furthermore, no manuscripts by Shakespeare were ever found, and only six Shakespeare signatures are known to exist. The signatures all look different and give the impression they were written by a man who was not used to holding a pen. Some speculate that others hands may have guided his own as he wrote them.
If someone other than William Shakespeare wrote the plays and poems published under his name, who was it? And did this secret author insert clues as to his real identity in his works? These are two separate questions, and one does not necessarily imply the other. Various bright Elizabethans have been championed as the true author simply based on their literary abilities, their fitting educational and social background, and plausible motives for wanting to conceal their authorshipamong them Edward de Vere, the 17th Earl of Oxford; Roger Manners, Earl of Rutland; William Stanley, Earl of Derby; and Sir Francis Bacon.
In the last few centuries, quite a few people in the old and the new world alike have undertaken the search for hidden messages in Shakespeares works that would prove such authorship. Anagrams, acrostics, word ciphers, string ciphers, letter ciphers, theyve all been found. But are they all for real?
Anyone interested in the various ciphers said to have been found in Shakespeares works should read The Shakespearean Ciphers Examined by William and Elizebeth Friedman. This thoroughly researched book from 1957 is out of print but copies can be found in libraries or on the Internet. Mr. Friedman, a professional cryptologist who helped decode the tantalizing Enigma ciphers employed by the Nazis during World War II, has been called one of Americas foremost cryptographers.
The Friedmans investigated dozens of ciphers allegedly discovered in the works of Shakespeare and analyzed them according to professional criteria of what constitutes a valid cipher. Its fair to say that in the process, little of the various cipher claims was left standing. One of the better-known efforts they showed to be unsound was that by Ignatius Donnelly. Donnelly, an attorney and politician, published The Great Cryptogram in the late 1880s. He revealed an elaborate and very impressive mathematical system of root numbers, multipliers and modifiers that produced messages such as that More low (Marlowe) or Shakst spur (Shakespeare) never writ a word of them. The numerical sequence to identify the word More on that particular given page ran like this: (root number) 516-16=349-22b&h=327-254=73-15b&h=58. 448-58=390+1=391.
However impressive Donnellys mathematical sequences, some who tried to reproduce his efforts came up with startling results. The Friedmans cite a Rev. A. Nicholson who took the same text passages that Donnelly started from and, beginning with the same root number and employing the same intricate method, came up with a message of his own: Master Will I am (William) Shakst spurre (Shakespeare) writ the play and was engaged at the Curtain. Thus, the subjective nature of the system rendered it invalid.
The Friedmans dedicate a large portion of their book to the bi-literal cipher discovered by Mrs. Elizabeth Gallup Wells, who believed that Francis Bacon was the true author of Shakespeares oeuvre. This part of the book is especially fascinating because the Friedmans themselves worked for Mrs. Gallup for several years. Once Mrs. Gallups decoding work gained notoriety, she attracted a benefactor, Colonel Fabian, who then employed a large research staff working on decoding the various texts. Elizebeth Friedman joined the team in 1915, William followed in 1916. They remained with her almost uninterruptedly until 1920.
Mrs. Gallup started out on solid ground, since she worked with the bi-literal cipher invented by Francis Bacon himself. Bacon published this cipher in October of 1623, just a month before the First Folio of Shakespeares complete works appeared. The bi-literal cipher is based on mixing two type fonts that are different enough to be distinguishable yet not too different to draw general attention. The First Folio is set in a curious mixture of italics and roman type styles, which quite naturally led to the suspicion that it may be hiding Bacons bi-literal cipher.
Mrs. Gallup believed, somewhat arbitrarily, that the cipher was embedded in the italic words in the plays, and deciphered lengthy passages that revealed Bacons authorship as well as his hidden life story. Once the Friedmans became involved in this work, they gradually came to the realization that Mrs. Gallup was the only one at the research center who could distinguish between the two fonts and produce meaningful messages. Everyone else invariably failed. Furthermore, Mrs. Gallup herself was unable to reproduce passages she had previously deciphered without considerable deviations. She also frequently omitted or added letters to make the cipher work. An FBI expert consulted by the Friedmans in the 1950s proved that there was much variation between individual italic letters in the Folio and that there were no characteristics that supported the strict classification into two fonts.
Since Mrs. Gallups work could not be reproduced independently by other decipherers, the Friedmans concluded that although Bacons bi-lateral cipher itself is a sound cipher, Gallups work was biased and unacceptable. That is not to say there couldnt be a bi-literal cipher hidden in Shakespeares works; it only means that if there is one, it hasnt been found yet.
References
Bacon, Francis De Augmentis Scientiarum (1623)
Donnelly, Ignatius, The Great Cryptogram (1888)
Friedman, William F. and Elizebeth S., The Shakespearean Ciphers Examined. (Cambridge University Press, 1957)
Wells Gallup, Elizabeth The Biliteral Cypher of Sir Francis Bacon Discovered in His Works and Deciphered by Mrs. Elizabeth Wells Gallup (1899)
See William Stevenson, A Man Called Intrepid.
Did Shakespeare write Shakespeare? Many people doubt that, for various reasonsthe most obvious one being that a barely literate actor from the sleepy village of Stratford-on-Avon could not possibly have written with such accuracy and familiarity the many scenes in the plays that invoke the classics or the pomp of nobility and royal courts. Furthermore, no manuscripts by Shakespeare were ever found, and only six Shakespeare signatures are known to exist. The signatures all look different and give the impression they were written by a man who was not used to holding a pen. Some speculate that others hands may have guided his own as he wrote them.
If someone other than William Shakespeare wrote the plays and poems published under his name, who was it? And did this secret author insert clues as to his real identity in his works? These are two separate questions, and one does not necessarily imply the other. Various bright Elizabethans have been championed as the true author simply based on their literary abilities, their fitting educational and social background, and plausible motives for wanting to conceal their authorshipamong them Edward de Vere, the 17th Earl of Oxford; Roger Manners, Earl of Rutland; William Stanley, Earl of Derby; and Sir Francis Bacon.
In the last few centuries, quite a few people in the old and the new world alike have undertaken the search for hidden messages in Shakespeares works that would prove such authorship. Anagrams, acrostics, word ciphers, string ciphers, letter ciphers, theyve all been found. But are they all for real?
Anyone interested in the various ciphers said to have been found in Shakespeares works should read The Shakespearean Ciphers Examined by William and Elizebeth Friedman. This thoroughly researched book from 1957 is out of print but copies can be found in libraries or on the Internet. Mr. Friedman, a professional cryptologist who helped decode the tantalizing Enigma ciphers employed by the Nazis during World War II, has been called one of Americas foremost cryptographers.
The Friedmans investigated dozens of ciphers allegedly discovered in the works of Shakespeare and analyzed them according to professional criteria of what constitutes a valid cipher. Its fair to say that in the process, little of the various cipher claims was left standing. One of the better-known efforts they showed to be unsound was that by Ignatius Donnelly. Donnelly, an attorney and politician, published The Great Cryptogram in the late 1880s. He revealed an elaborate and very impressive mathematical system of root numbers, multipliers and modifiers that produced messages such as that More low (Marlowe) or Shakst spur (Shakespeare) never writ a word of them. The numerical sequence to identify the word More on that particular given page ran like this: (root number) 516-16=349-22b&h=327-254=73-15b&h=58. 448-58=390+1=391.
However impressive Donnellys mathematical sequences, some who tried to reproduce his efforts came up with startling results. The Friedmans cite a Rev. A. Nicholson who took the same text passages that Donnelly started from and, beginning with the same root number and employing the same intricate method, came up with a message of his own: Master Will I am (William) Shakst spurre (Shakespeare) writ the play and was engaged at the Curtain. Thus, the subjective nature of the system rendered it invalid.
The Friedmans dedicate a large portion of their book to the bi-literal cipher discovered by Mrs. Elizabeth Gallup Wells, who believed that Francis Bacon was the true author of Shakespeares oeuvre. This part of the book is especially fascinating because the Friedmans themselves worked for Mrs. Gallup for several years. Once Mrs. Gallups decoding work gained notoriety, she attracted a benefactor, Colonel Fabian, who then employed a large research staff working on decoding the various texts. Elizebeth Friedman joined the team in 1915, William followed in 1916. They remained with her almost uninterruptedly until 1920.
Mrs. Gallup started out on solid ground, since she worked with the bi-literal cipher invented by Francis Bacon himself. Bacon published this cipher in October of 1623, just a month before the First Folio of Shakespeares complete works appeared. The bi-literal cipher is based on mixing two type fonts that are different enough to be distinguishable yet not too different to draw general attention. The First Folio is set in a curious mixture of italics and roman type styles, which quite naturally led to the suspicion that it may be hiding Bacons bi-literal cipher.
Mrs. Gallup believed, somewhat arbitrarily, that the cipher was embedded in the italic words in the plays, and deciphered lengthy passages that revealed Bacons authorship as well as his hidden life story. Once the Friedmans became involved in this work, they gradually came to the realization that Mrs. Gallup was the only one at the research center who could distinguish between the two fonts and produce meaningful messages. Everyone else invariably failed. Furthermore, Mrs. Gallup herself was unable to reproduce passages she had previously deciphered without considerable deviations. She also frequently omitted or added letters to make the cipher work. An FBI expert consulted by the Friedmans in the 1950s proved that there was much variation between individual italic letters in the Folio and that there were no characteristics that supported the strict classification into two fonts.
Since Mrs. Gallups work could not be reproduced independently by other decipherers, the Friedmans concluded that although Bacons bi-lateral cipher itself is a sound cipher, Gallups work was biased and unacceptable. That is not to say there couldnt be a bi-literal cipher hidden in Shakespeares works; it only means that if there is one, it hasnt been found yet.
References
Bacon, Francis De Augmentis Scientiarum (1623)
Donnelly, Ignatius, The Great Cryptogram (1888)
Friedman, William F. and Elizebeth S., The Shakespearean Ciphers Examined. (Cambridge University Press, 1957)
Wells Gallup, Elizabeth The Biliteral Cypher of Sir Francis Bacon Discovered in His Works and Deciphered by Mrs. Elizabeth Wells Gallup (1899)
See William Stevenson, A Man Called Intrepid.
